A. SOCIAL THEORIES are explanations
of social phenomena.
B. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY suggests
that societies, like biological organisms, progress through stages of increasing
complexity.
1. Early theorists, such as Spencer, were opposed to intervention,
whereas contemporary evolutionists view evolution as a process that does not necessarily
result in change for the better.
2. The premise of evolutionary theory that social systems tend
to become more complex over time can be useful in providing better comprehension
of current trends and even help to predict the future.
C. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM focuses
on the STRUCTURES, the parts of the social systems, and the FUNCTIONS or the purposes
of these structures.
1. A STATUS is a socially defined position. A SOCIAL SYSTEM
is a set of interrelated statuses of positions. Some statuses are ASCRIBED whereas
others are ACHIEVED. Sets of interrelated statuses or positions are SOCIAL SYSTEMS.
2. The functionalist perspective assumes that social systems
have an underlying tendency to be in equilibrium or balance. Any system that fails
to fulfill its functions will result in an imbalance or disequilibrium.
3. A social system can have both MANIFEST and LATENT FUNCTIONS.
Manifest functions are intended and recognized. Latent functions are neither intended
nor recognized.
4. According to Merton, a system can be FUNCTIONAL, tending
to maintain the system, or DYSFUNCTIONAL, leading to the instability or the breakdown
of a system.
5. Structural functional theory is used by academic sociologists
to study and analyze every form of social system. It can be particularly useful
for applied sociologists as a means to understand and resolve problems in a wide
variety of social systems and situations.
D. CONFLICT THEORY today assumes
that conflict is a permanent feature of social life resulting in societies being
in a state of constant change.
1. Classical conflict theorists, mainly Marx, argued that the
structure of society is determined by its economic organization, particularly the
ownership of property. The history of societies, then, is the story of class struggle.
2. Contemporary theorists, such as Dahrendoff and Coser, have focused on
the integrative nature of conflict — its value as a force
that contributes to order and stability.
that contributes to order and stability.
3. One major contrast between functionalist and conflict theorists
is that functionalists believe that the social process is a continual effort to
maintain harmony. Conflict theorists believe that the social process is characterized
by constraint, conflict and change.
4. Conflict theory suggests that conflicts in organizations
or among individuals can often be resolved by recognizing that conflicts exist.
Conflict theory can be used to help create techniques to deal with conflict or used
constructively in the workplace or in one’s personal life.
E. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM is
a microsociological orientation that stresses interaction between people as well
as the social processes that occur within the individual that are made possible
by language and internalized meanings.
1. A SYMBOL is something that is used to represent something
else. LANGUAGE is a shared system of symbols that represent physical objects or
concepts and that can be used for communication.
2. Mead argued that it is the human ability to use symbols
that distinguishes us from animals. Through social interaction humans learn to share
meanings and to communicate symbolically with words and gestures.
3. The interactionist perspective examines patterns and processes
of everyday life that are generally ignored by many other perspectives.
4. Because symbolic interaction theory emphasizes that people
act on the basis of their interpretation of the language and symbols in a situation
and not the situation in and of itself, the perspective is useful in pointing to
the importance of shared definitions in resolving social problems.
F. EXCHANGE THEORY attempts to explain social behavior in terms
of reciprocity of costs and rewards. It assumes that life is a series of reciprocal
exchanges and that voluntary social interactions are contingent upon rewarding or
punishing reactions from others.
1. Homans’ view represents the behaviorist’s perspective of
exchange that emphasizes actual observable behavior, not on processes that can be
inferred from behavior.
2. Blau is an advocate of the interactionist perspective of
exchange. He contends that exchange is more subjective and interpretive.
3. Homans’ distributive justice and Blau’s fair exchange theories reflect
the importance of each party in the exchange receiving mutually-held expectations
of reciprocation.
4. In exchange theory, social life is viewed as a process of
bargaining or negotiation. Social relationships are based on trust and mutual interests.
G. Additional theoretical perspectives
include SOCIOBIOLOGY, HUMANISM and FEMINISM.
1. The SOCIOBIOLOGICAL perspective studies the biological and
genetic determinants of social behavior. This theory maintains that social influences
would not greatly modify behavior.
a. The origins of social behavior
are therefore linked to genetic or biological factors.
b. One criticism of this theory
is that wide variations exist in sexual domination, nurturance and other behaviors.
2. HUMANISTIC theories maintain that social science cannot
and should not be value free. Sociologists should be actively involved in social
change.
a. Efforts should be made toward
achieving social justice and equity for everyone, irrespective of gender or race.
b. SECULAR HUMANISM disputes
the religious focus on a god or on supernatural powers and maintains that social
problems are solved by humans through their own efforts.
3. FEMINIST theories and perspectives hold the belief that
gender is basic to all social structure and organization.
a. Feminist theories argue that
the experiences of women are different from those of men … that women are less privileged
or unequal to men and that women are actively restrained, subordinated, used and
oppressed by men.
b. Similar to the views held
by humanists, feminist theory argues that truly objective research and study is
neither possible nor appropriate.
4. Other perspectives, such as NETWORK theory, EXISTENTIALISM
and PHENOMENOLOGY are similar to those discussed in this chapter
COMPARING THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
